acetone, An extremely flammable, powerful but mild smelling solvent that dissolves Superglue® and is useful in various other cleaning processes. Notably, it has a very fast evaporation rate and is soluble in water, a useful drying agent with the caveat that its rapid evaporation refrigerates metal items, and in humid conditions water will condense on them. It also penetrates flesh readily, and so may pose long-term health risks; it dissolves many kinds of rubber gloves, and should be used very cautiously

acid etching, A surface treatment technique in which metal is coated with wax, asphaltum, or another substance that resists the action of an acid, such as diluted nitric acid. The intended design or pattern is scratched through the "resist" layer, then the metal is immersed in etching "mordant," (the general name for whatever acid formula is used) allowing the acid to "bite" or dissolve some of the metal exposed by the scratches -- producing the design etched into the surface. Bubbles form during the process, partially shielding the metal from the acid; they should be regularly brushed away with a feather if the etching is intended to be uniform (feathers are resistant to the acid and softer than a brush).

acid, hydrochloric, Hydrogen Chloride; an aggressive acid, used, among many uses, to clean or etch metal. also used with various chemicals to color metal as part of the many formulas for patinas. Also see "aqua regia."

acid, hydrofluoric, A strongly aggressive acid that attacks glass, so it is used to etch glass; it must be contained in certain plastic or wax lined bottles.

acid, nitric, A strongly aggressive acid that dissolves most metals and is thus used, diluted with water, as an etching "mordant." It is normally used to reclaim silver from sweeps and scrap in the refining processes. Even brief contact will stain skin brown to black, semi-permanently, until it wears away. Also see "aqua regia."

acid, sulfuric, A strong acid that is usually used in very dilute form as a "pickle" -- a metal cleaning bath. It has many other uses, especially when combined with other chemicals used to "patinate" metals.

agar, A water soluble gum substance obtained from seaweeds, used as a delicate glue in enameling, for example, cloisonné wires are arranged on a previously fired enamel surface wetted with a thin water solution of the gum. Upon re-firing the glue burns off without a trace, allowing the wires to settle lightly into the hot enamel.

air hardening, A technique that hardens sterling silver and gold alloys, somewhat, by heating the metal to a dull red temperature and allowing it to cool slowly in air - this is often confusing to those experienced with hardening tool steel, which will soften under the same conditions

alcohol lamp, A squat (usually) glass bottle with heat resistant stopper and a provision for a wick that draws the fuel up like a kerosene lamp without the chimney, providing a surprisingly hot flame. Before the advent of the gas torch alcohol lamps were the primary soldering heat source for jewelers, who blew a jet of air through the flame with a breath-operated blow pipe; this takes considerable practice to control. Although they're still occasionally in use this way today, the alcohol lamp is now mostly used by wax workers who heat tools to form and manipulate wax models in preparation for lost wax castings.

alloy, A microscopic mixture of two or more metals, useful in acquiring desirable qualities such as hardening or strengthening, another color, or a different melting point. Sterling silver is significantly harder than either pure silver or pure copper, because of the addition of 6% copper.

ammonia, In jewelry manufacturing use - diluted household cleaning ammonia used to remove oils and dirt, especially prior to electroplating. It is also the solvent for silver chloride which is useful in a simple refining technique that allows pure silver to be extracted by electrodeposition.

annealing, The term for softening metals (useful when the object must be made malleable after becoming work hardened, to prevent fractures). Gold, silver, and other non-ferrous metals are heated to a dull red temperature and then quenched in water. Exactly the opposite condition will result with tool steel, it will harden when quenched; hardened steel is annealed by gradual cooling (see tempering).

antiflux, A substance used as a barrier in soldering operations where one wants the solder to flow only just so far and no farther. See "ochre."

antiqueing, A surface treatment or patination for metals, darkening or tarnishing it with various chemicals that deposit thin films of dull metallic compounds: it can be an oxide such as rust, a sulfide as in silver tarnish, a carbonate such as the green of weathered copper, or an electrodeposition of another metal that is darkened. It is a poor practice (but unfortunately common) to use a kind of paint that will inevitably fall off, whereas a real chemical patina will grow richer in color with age.

anvil, A hard, often specially shaped block of steel (or, in the case of ancient China - jade) on which softer metals are shaped or "wrought" by hammering. Forging "stakes" are specialized anvils.

aqua regia, Also called "king's water" and "royal water," it is an extremely aggressive mixture of three parts hydrochloric acid and one part nitric acid. It will dissolve gold of higher quality, which neither acid alone will do, and may be used to test the quality of gold by means of known karat "test needles." in the refining processes of reclaiming gold from scrap.

asbestos, A heat resistant fibrous mineral that was once used in many products and found utility in jewelry making as surfaces for soldering, insulated gloves, casting flask liners, etc. It has been found to cause lung cancer when particles become imbedded in the lungs and so is not recommended for daily use

asphaltum, A thinned solution of asphalt used as a barrier paint or "resist" in the processes of acid etching.

asterism, The appearance of a "star" in gem crystals caused by microscopic needle-like formations. It is similar in its cause to viewing a light across rippled water; each ripple reflects the light separately and the combined effect is of a long streak of aligned reflections. In a crystal of hexagonal form (sapphire) there are six angles that cause such streaks of reflections and so cause a six-rayed "star."

baguette, A small rectangular shaped gemstone, generally used side-by-side in multiples to fill longer areas with solid areas of diamonds (French - small rod).

bead setting, A term for the stone setting technique in which small prongs are cut from the surface of the metal and bent upward and over the girdle of a gem with an engraving tool (lozenge or scorper) then formed into smooth round shapes with a beading tool (small steel rod with a round handle and a concave polished point). Often this is followed with carved flat surfaces between the beads, called "bright cutting." The whole process in the trade vernacular is termed"bead and bright"

bee's wax, Exactly that: wax made by bees to construct their honeycombs, it is a sticky but dissolvable substance used to manipulate and position gems while setting them, by forming a lump of it into a pointed cone and pressing a stone's front surface onto it; similarly it works well to hold tiny watch screws onto screw drivers, by warming the driver blades and dipping them into the wax to form a thin sticky film, to lubricate saw blades slide a lump of wax lightly down the backs of the teeth so as not to clog the blade with too much wax; as a resist to acid for etching by mixing with a pigment for visibility and melting it on the work's surface, scratching and scraping through where the acid is intended to "bite"; as the probable original wax used in lost wax casting models, etc.

bench pin, Also called a "filing pin," a versatile and under-appreciated block of wood attached to a jeweler's work bench, usually with a vertical hole and a vee slot sawn to the hole, used to help support and hold small objects while filing, drilling, sawing, etc. It should be thought of as something to be altered to fit the operation, to be rasped and shaped into whatever form works best for the particular job and the individual.

bench, jeweler's, The general working furniture - surface and cabinet - that has evolved to sort of a standard, but usually customized to the individual's preferences. Renaissance era prints show circular arrangements for several workers, a logical design for sharing resources and gossip, no doubt.

bench block, A flat polished and usually case-hardened steel block used as a simple anvil for flattening, stretching, stamping, planishing, etc.

bezel setting, A gem stone setting with a simple strip of thin metal bent around and over the stone's outer edge, or a gem inset into a hollowed out form with the metal's edges burnished or peened down and in, just over the girdle.

Birthstones, Traditions vary from culture to culture, but several sources agree with this:(link to a table of birthstones)

bobbing, The first coarsest polishing step, usually with a rotary brush that carries the abrasive particles deep into the recesses of complicated designs,

bobbing compound, A mixture of abrasive particles held together by sticky wax in the form of a block, that is held against the bobbing wheel to charge the fibers or bristles

borax, Sodium Borate, used as a flux - a white mineral that, among other uses, forms a low melting glassy coating on hot metals while they're being soldered. This prevents excessive oxidation and encourages metals to flow together more easily

boric acid, A compound of boron and hydrogen, similar to borax. It dissolves in alcohol and, when a gold item is dipped and the alcohol burned off, leaves a thin powder of borax that aids as a flux during soldering.

bright cut, In jewelry work this refers to the difficult engraving technique of shaving away some of the metal around a set gem, between the beads that hold the stone in, sloping slightly downward to the stone's girdle, and usually in a square or hexagon shape around it. See "bead setting."

brilliant cut, The term describing the standard proportions, angles, and number of facets of a modern style round cut diamond, with an octagonal table facet, 32 crown facets (above the girdle) and 24 pavilion facets below, plus the culet (the tiny facet on the bottom point - the perfection the culet's shape is a good indication of a carefully cut stone). Exceptional quality stones may also have microscopic facets around the girdle. The angles are designed according to Diamond's index of refraction to accentuate the stone's natural sparkle. Unfortunately more of the natural crystal must be cut away to achieve these proportions, and although the result is indeed more brilliantly white, previously popular proportions of cut - "mine cut" and "European cut"- provided a richer dispersion of refractive colors with heavier, deeper, stones of the same diameters.

buff, To polish metal with various fine abrasive compounds embedded into cloth wheels or bristle wheels. The wheels themselves are commonly called buffs.

buffing compound, Various fine abrasive particles held together by sticky wax in the form of bars or blocks, that are held against spinning buffing wheels, or rubbed by hand onto buff sticks to embed or "charge" the wheel's fibers. It is the compound that does the polishing, not the fabric.

burnishing shot, Small polished shapes of steel or stainless steel used in volume in a rotating or vibrating tumbler with a rust preventative soap, to "tumble burnish" jewelry castings.

cabochon, A smoothly rounded shaped gemstone, without facets.

carving wax, Any of the variety of waxes specifically formulated for carving and rasping, as well as hot modeling for lost wax casting. Today they are usually forms of plastic designed to be machinable without sticking or clogging tools.

carat, A unit of weight for precious stones, equal to 200 milligrams, it is further divided into 100ths - "points." A 75 point stone is 3/4 of a carat. Often carat is confused with the term "karat," the measure of gold purity; to confuse matters even more, in Great Britain both terms are spelled "carat."

carat gold, The British spelling of karat, signifying the purity of gold. Gold alloyed with another metal in the proportion of fourteen parts gold out of a total twenty four parts (58% gold) is fourteen karat, or 14k. 24k gold is 100% pure, and extremely soft. Various metals in the alloy change the hardness, color, and ductility,

case harden, In jewelry, work hardening the outer layer of silver or other non-ferrous metals by planishing with a hammer, drawing through a drawplate, or burnishing. In steel it's a method of hardening the outer surface of a lower grade soft steel, by surrounding it with a carbon material, like charcoal, and heating it in an enclosed container that prevents oxygen from burning it. Carbon combines as an alloy with the steel, gradually, forming high-carbon steel on the surface, and to a depth determined by the length of time it remains hot in the concentration of carbon. It can then be hardened and tempered while leaving the interior malleable.

casting, Any of the various methods of pouring molten metal into some form of mold, or the object of that process is "a casting."

casting arm, The part of a centrifugal casting machine that rotates, with a cradle that holds the hot mold and the crucible on one end, and an equalizing balance weight on the other end.

casting crucible, A heat resistant ceramic or graphite container in which metal is melted, and used to direct the flow of the metal into a mold. Casting centrifuge crucibles are specially shaped to a sliding fit on the machine's arm against the "cradle" that holds the mold.

casting flask, A strong stainless steel cylinder used in lost wax casting. It contains the casting investment (special plaster) while it sets hard into a mold, and remains around the mold as a reinforcment while it is later heated in a kiln, burning out the wax, and finally when the molten metal is cast in.

casting investment, The term relates to "clothing," or surrounding - A refractory plaster and silica flour mixture used to make lost wax casting molds around wax models.

casting porosity, Tiny casting flaws: holes or spongy areas caused by loose particles of investment in the mold, often because of thin brittle investment sections and sharp inside corners on the wax model, forming weak ridges in the investment that can break off with the onrushing molten metal, or weakly mixed investment, or uneven contraction of the metal upon cooling. Wax models should be sprued at their heaviest section if possible; heavier sprues solve the most of the problems. Another category, micro porosity beneath the surface of otherwise perfect castings, is a result of casting into a "cold" mold. The hot metal slams into the relatively cold surface and instantly solidifies, while the interior metal remains liquid a little longer and then shrinks inward away from the initial skin -- leaving tiny evacuated pits.

casting shot, Lumps of refined and alloyed silver, gold, or other metals, prepared for melting in casting crucibles

casting tongs, When the wax is thoroughly vaporized, and while the mold is still hot, casting tongs are used to grasp hot flasks, to move them to either a vacuum casting machine or a casting centrifuge, or less sophisticated steam pressure tools.

centrifugal casting, A technique developed by the dental industry in which molten metal is forced into a mold at higher pressure than gravity will allow. A simple and perfectly adequate machine used by many jewelers consists of a barrel base containing spiral spring that drives an axle mounted in smooth running bearings, and a one-way mechanism that winds the spring when turned one direction, but allows the axle to spin freely in the other direction. The axle extends up through the top bearing where it is attached to an arm perpendicular to it with a hand tightened nut and a cross-pin through the axle that serves as a fulcrum for balancing the arm before the nut is tightened. A crucible is held in a radially sliding cradle with another fixed cradle adjacent on the outside end of the arm where the mold is placed - the mold's opening facing inward toward the spout of the crucible. The opposite end of the arm has adjustable weights that may be moved inward or outward to balance the arm for specific sized molds and amounts of metal. The metal is melted with a torch and, when ready, the arm released from its holding pin trigger, to spin and force the metal outward through the mold's spout into the mold.

ceramic shot, Regularly shaped small particles of ceramic material, of various fineness, used in either a rotary or vibratory tumbler, to tumble-grind metal castings as a production finishing process. (not satisfactorily in my opinion - further explanation on the tumble finishing page.)

cerium oxide, A fast working polishing abrasive used in lapidary work. When impure it may contain traces of radioactive Thorium. Use with reasonable caution (don't breath the dust, and use in a paste with oil or water.)

channel setting, The technique of setting faceted gemstones in a groove formed in metal jewelry, or as often used redundently, a ring "setting" that includes stones set in a channel.

charcoal block, Wood heated in the absence of oxygen, shaped into a block and used as a soldering surface. Parts being soldered may be held in place with binding wire or pins driven into the charcoal, or it can be shaped for specific holding purposes. It does, of course, burn. But this can be an advantage in providing more even heating to the object being soldered.

chasing, A sheet metal forming process using a hammer and small punches of varied shapes and sizes. Forms and details may be worked into the piece from both sides. Generally the object is held in chasing pitch, which provides the support and elasticity that is desired. The work is removed by heating it enough to slightly melt the pitch. Lacquer thinner dissolves the residue.

chasing bowl, An iron hemispheric bowl filled with chasing pitch. Its shape allows it to be positioned at varied convenient angles in a chasing ring during the procedure.

chasing pitch, A mixture of black tar, chalk powder, ground clay, or some other filler, an emollient or softener, and other substances that are mixed together and melted into an iron bowl, providing a consistency appropriate for insetting or bedding - lightly melting into - a thin sheet of metal in order to shape it with chasing punches. When cooled the pitch should be firm and not sticky, yet it should yield to the punches, allowing the metal to be formed with deep relief, without separating from the pitch. Alternately, hollow metal forms are filled with pitch providing support for work on the outsides of the object. Delicate metal objects may be held securely and safely, without deforming, during stone setting or engraving. They are removed by softening the pitch with heat, followed by dissolving the pitch off with lacquer thinner or another solvent, followed by washing.

chasing ring, A heavy doughnut shaped bag, usually of leather filled with lead shot. Its purpose is to hold an iron chasing bowl at varied angles without moving under the vibration and force of chasing punches.

chatoyant, chatoyancy, The wavy silky undulating shimming quality of a cat's eye Beryl, tourmaline, tiger's eye, and other optically similar materials, caused by needle-like parallel formations or inclusions. This is similar to the effect and cause of "asterism."

Clearfire®, A proprietary, probably synthetic, clear liquid thinned with water and applied with ground glass enamel. It bonds the particles together when dried, to aid in holding the powder in position, and burns away without a trace during the firing. Prior to it, gum tragacanth was used for the same purpose.

cloisonné enameling, The technique of fusing colors of ground glass onto metal, with wires forming lines (French - little fences) in the design separating elements of the design - formed with bent flat wires embedded in the glass enamel, or hard soldered on edge to the metal's surface.

cloisonné wire, The thin flat wire used as a design element to separate colors or areas in Cloisonné enameling.

Counter-enamel, Fused glass enamel applied to the opposite side of the metal from the decorative enamel. It can be decorative too, but the main concern is to equalize strains in the cooling to prevent the enamel on the opposite side from chipping off as the metal contracts.

crucible, A refractory ceramic or graphite vessel used to melt and pour molten metal.

dapping, The process of forming metal disks into dish shapes or hemispheres with round ended punches

dapping block, A wood or metal block with various sized concave, or dished out shapes - used with dapping punches to form sheet metal disks into rounded dish shapes or hemispheres, also called a dapping die.

dapping punch, One of a set of various diameters of round-ended steel bars, used with a hammer and a dapping block to form sheet metal disks into rounded dish shapes of hemispheres.

denatured alcohol, Ethyl alcohol with various additives, poisonous, used as a fuel and solvent.

die, A hard cutting or forming tool, usually a block or thick disk of steel; cutting dies usually have matching sharp edged punches, forming dies are more often like molds with matched forming punches that shape thin sheet metal into the die. They can be combination forming and cutting tools. Threading dies cut an external thread on a wire or rod as one or the other is rotated.

distilled water, Water with no dissolved minerals, produced by condensing steam or water vapor. It is necessary in electroplating or enameling processes that can't tolerate impurities.

dop wax, A hard tough wax, much like sealing wax, used to temporarily hold gemstones on a handle called a "dop stick" while forming and polishing the gem.

drill press, A machine that holds and rotates a drill bit, or other rotating tools, with a rack-geared or levered mechanism that allows the operator to more accurately control the drill's angle and advance into the intended hole. The object is held on an adjustable table, either by hand, clamped, or in a vise.

ebony, A beautiful hard black wood from Africa

electroforming, electroplating thickly to add metal beyond what is commonly thought of as plating; this can be done into a mold, almost as a casting, or around another form.

electroforming solution, A liquid chemical mixture that contains a dissolved metal, more concentrated than electroplating solution.

electroplating, A process of transferring electrically conductive metals in the form of "ions" (lacking electrons, and therefor positively charged) through a chemical solution onto an object that has been given a negative charge, usually using: gold, silver, palladium, chrome, nickel, copper, or an alloy, depending on the specific chemicals, source anodes, and electroplating solution. A liquid chemical mixture that either contains dissolved metal or permits the transfer of metal ions from a source anode.

electrostrip, A process of removing a thin layer of metal with electrical charges and chemical solutions; it is the reverse of electroplating. Also a term for a quick cleaning step in the electroplating process.

electrostripping solution, Chemical solutions specifically formulated to remove a thin layer of metal, or electrically clean the surface.

emerald cut, A rectangular faceting shape of gemstones -- technically octagonal because the corners are beveled into facets -- commonly associated with emeralds because their crystals form in shapes that lend themselves to rectangles with less waste than there would be if they were cut into round forms.

enamel, True enamel -- not paint -- is colored glass, usually ground into a powder and "fired" or melted onto a metal surface.

enamel, cloisonné, A technique in enameling that separates colors and elements of the design with imbedded bent and formed flat wires, arranged on edge -- from French "fences."

enamel, plique a jour, A difficult and beautiful technique in enameling, similar to cloisonné, but having no backing metal -- to permit a stained glass effect; in one method transparent enamel and wire are arranged on a form of mica, fired and re-filled with more enamel, fired again, etc. until the desired thickness of glass is obtained. Then the underlying mica is carefully stoned away and the object very briefly fired again to polish just the surfaces.

enamel, counter-enamel or under-course, A layer of enamel fired to the reverse side of an enameled design, to equalize the stresses of contraction of cooling enamel, stabilizing to prevent cracking and to prevent warping.

enameling foil, Very thin gold or silver, laid between background enamel and the top transparent colors, used to reflect light back through layers of transparent enamel.

enameling kiln, A special oven used to "fire" or fuse enamel onto metal.

enameling mortar and pestle, A strong hard bowl and crushing tool used to hand grind enamel (colored glass) particles. Purists store enamel in chunks and grind them as needed to maintain the brightest and cleanest colors. Already ground enamel should be re-ground in water, and the lighter material washed away. Otherwise the colors, especially the transparents, will tend to be cloudy.

enameling trivet, A small stand usually made of stainless steel, to hold the enameled metal, usually by its edges or on three points, in a kiln while it reaches the fusing temperature.

engraving, The process of carving designs onto metal work, perhaps the most difficult decorative technique. Sadly, most modern engraving is accomplished with the help of machines

engraving ball, A special vice designed to hold a variety of shapes and sizes of jewelry work, for engraving, carving, and stone setting, arranged to swivel on an iron ball shaped base, that sits in a chasing ring and allows the work to be manipulated through various angles and circular motions while steadying it with its massive weight.

etching, See "acid etching." A decorative metal working process that makes use of various acids, often diluted nitric acid, to dissolve away some of the metal. Some areas are protected by wax or "asphaltum" or other "resists," and are not attacked by the acid, providing a contrast of design and texture.

European cut, A term referring to an older standard of diamond cutting, previous to the modern standard "brilliant cut." It is a very beautiful cut, with more emphasis on the subtle colors refracted from the light rather than the mere sparkle or brilliance.

facet, A flat polished surface on a gemstone, one of many. Crystals have natural facets that help identify the stones and, to a scientist, reveal the internal atomic arrangements.

filigree, A delicate technique of metalsmithing involving very fine bent wires arranged into the intended design and soldered together, traditionally all soldered at one time with a fine dusting of solder filings over the entire object, and fired in a bed of charcoal, or in a kiln. The process can be accomplished with modern torches, but it's hard to beat the old ways.

filing pin or peg, Also called a "bench pin," a versatile and under-appreciated block of wood attached to a jeweler's work bench, usually with a vertical hole and a vee slot sawn to the hole, used to help support and hold small objects while filing, drilling, sawing, etc. It should be thought of as something to be altered to fit the operation, to be rasped and shaped into whatever form works best for the particular job and the individual.

fire scale, A copperish-colored stain formed on sterling during the process of soldering or otherwise during heating to incandescence. Although it can be removed with judicious use of nitric acid, it is usually filed, sanded, or buffed off, tediously. It increases in thickness with longer periods of intense heat, and with free access to oxygen, so it becomes advantageous to learn to accomplish the soldering processes quickly to avoid thick layers of fire scale.

flex-shaft, Also called a pendant drill; a hand-held drilling grinding and polishing apparatus with an electric motor suspended from above and the rotating power transferred through a flexible tube of spring steel coils and rubber, by means of an inner lubricated cable.

Florentine, A technique that uses a special "liner" graver, made with multiple parallel lines, to texture a metal's surface with cross-hatched patterns.

flux, A chemical, usually borax based in jewelry, that forms a thin glass layer, preventing direct contact with air which prevents excessive oxidation and aids in causing solder to flow.

forge hardening, stiffening a metal by hammering

forging, shaping metal by hammering on various anvils or stakes with specialized hammers. Iron and steel are normally forged hot, while non-ferrous metals are usually forged at room temperature, periodically softened, annealed, to prevent excessive work hardening or forge hardening until the desired shape is accomplished.

French chalk, Powdered soapstone talc, magnesium silicate, Used to facilitate rubber mold making and wax model injecting; to prevent freshly cut vulcanized rubber from sticking together, and to provide a minute amount of space between mold parts so air can escape when liquid wax is injected into it.

full cut brilliant, A cut diamond with the correct angle proportions and all 32 facets on the crown and 24 pavilion facets plus the culet. Exceptional gems may be cut with additional very tiny facets all around the girdle.

gild, To color or coat metal with gold

gild, mercury, A once common, ancient, beautiful, and extremely dangerous technique of gilding that employs the use of an amalgam of mercury and gold that is applied to the object and heated to drive off the mercury, leaving the gold on the surface. Mercury vapors produced by this method are deadly.

gold solder, Alloys of gold formulated to melt at specific temperatures, lower than the gold jewelry being soldered, but as close in color and purity of gold as possible. See "solder, hard, medium, easy, soft."

graphite stirring rod, A thin stick of graphite used to probe and feel the liquidity of molten casting metal.

gum tragacanth, A resin from "Goat's Thorn," Astragalus Tragacantha (I had to look that up). In enameling it is used as a gentle binding agent for powdered enamels. Dissolved with water, and used with the "wet inlay" technique of cloisonné and pliq a jour. When fired the gum burns away without a trace

gypsy setting, a plain ring with a bezel-set stone.

half cut brilliant, A cut diamond that has half the number of facets of a standard brilliant cut, usually only seen on very small diamonds, but common among less valuable stones in smaller sizes.

hammer, chasing, An unusually shaped light hammer with a wide flat face and a small ball-peen end. Its handle is very narrow except for a bulbous part that facilitates rotation in the hand so the hammer can be made to do the work with a smaller flick of the wrist rather than a tiring larger motion of the hand; it is probably the result of many centuries of tedium and the discoveries of countless craftsmen that led to the most comfortable shape and size for endless repetition of hand motion. It is, in my opinion, perfect

hammer, forging, Any of the various hammers used to manipulate metal, but not used to drive nails or for other uses that might injure the specific shape and finish of the head.

hammer, planishing, A highly polished hammer used to remove the more gross raising or stretching hammer marks, and to finish the form's subtleties while polishing and work hardening the surfaces.

hammer, raising, A polished hammer designed for shaping a disk of relatively thin sheet metal into a cup, bowl, vase, or other vessel form. it is usually heavier than a stretching hammer, more gently rounded and often the head is shaped specifically by the user after gradually learning what works best for him or her.

hammer, riveting, An unpolished hammer with one end of the head flattening and mushrooming over a rivet's edge, and the other end thin but slightly rounded for quickly cross-peening the rivet head to compress the metal faster. the narrow end is similar to a small stretching hammer's shape.

hammer, stretching, A polished hammer designed for shaping a relatively thick-sectioned metal into a thinner but longer form. Similar to a raising hammer, it's form is designed to move the compressed metal along an intended controlled direction; it's like a portion of a small cylinder impacting the metal with it's rounded side.

hand vise, A hand-held clamp used to hold small objects during drilling, sawing, filing, etc.

heat sink, A metal object that absorbs and dissipates heat out of something else. In jewelry making, for example, sometimes during soldering it becomes difficult to apply heat to one area while avoiding another more delicate area nearby. In this case special tweezers or heavy wire, or another metal part may be used to protect the delicate area by absorbing some of the heat, protecting the thin area from melting before the thicker area reaches the soldering temperature.

Hilox®, A proprietary trade name for a chemical mix that includes hydrochloric acid; it darkens or antiques alloyed gold and silver with a patina.

ingot, A cast block of metal, a beginning stage of forming some other shape.

ingot mold, A simple mold for forming liquid metal into a regular shape so it can be formed further as wire or sheet

inlay, Any of the various techniques of forming contrasting metals into recessed areas of the main object. As an example, gravers are used to undercut grooves in patterns, then wire is bent to fit and hammered into the undercuts where it flattens underneath, permanently attaching without the use of solder or glue.

investment, See "casting investment"

investment soldering, A technique using plaster-like investment to temporarily hold objects partially imbedded in a desired arrangement while they are soldered together.

iridescence, A colorful interplay of light that occurs when light is reflected from very thin layers of a transparent material. It is the same phenomenon as the bright colors of a music compact disk, or an oil slick, or a peacock feather; when the transparent layers are narrower than a wave length of light the result is light wave interference and visible color. This occurs naturally in some opals, moonstones, and fire agates. It can also occur in ordinary quartz when crystals grow together forming very thin boundary spaces.

karat, The measure of purity for gold: 24 karat is pure, while 14 karat is an alloy of 14/24ths, or slightly over 58% gold, the remainder usually is copper and silver in varied proportions but the alloy can contain other metals imparting various colors or other properties useful in manufacturing such as hardness or malleability.

kiln, A high temperature oven, used in jewelry making to heat investment molds and burn away the wax models for lost wax castings. Kilns are used to melt colored glass in enameling, to fire ceramics, and occasionally kilns find use in soldering procedures.

lacquer, A hard glossy clear protective coating usually applied to wood, also used to prevent brass from tarnishing.

lacquer thinner, A very strong smelling and flammable solvent for lacquer, and also useful in thinning or dissolving metal powder paints used in electroplating, and to thin or dissolve asphaltum and chasing pitch.

lap, lapping, The procedure of very fine grinding with a relatively hard-surfaced polishing wheel that has fine abrasive particles imbedded in it. The wheel is also a "lap."

lapidary, The craft of grinding, forming and polishing stone, including gemstones.

lapidary's drill stock, An ancient and aesthetically endearing form of drill using a thin rod with a flywheel and a string that connects to the extended ends of a kind of yoke - a cross piece with a hole in it that the rod rotates within; the string is wound on the rod from the back end and it makes the rod rotate in alternating directions with an even intermittent push on the yoke. A simple flywheel mounted below the yoke provides the inertia to rewind the string between each push. Various sized drill bits can be mounted on the business end. It's a very simple yet efficient tool. A smaller version was once the standard tool for watchmakers, and in the hands of an expert it is very sensitive.

lathe, A machine that turns a material so that cutting tools may be applied to form round shapes. Also a machine that spins a wheel that in turn does some work, such as a grinding lathe or a buffing lathe.

lathe spinning, All lathes spin, but generally this refers to shaping disks of flat sheet metal over wooden forms, using strong steel burnishing tools and soapy lubricants.

lathe turning, All lathes turn, but generally turning refers to those techniques that involve cutting material away while it turns on the lathe.

lemel, Metal filings, turnings, and other manufacturing scraps.

Liver of Sulfur, Sulfurated potash, It is dissolved in warm water and used as a "patina" chemical to darken or tarnish silver. Unfortunately it smells like, well, rotten eggs. One of it's more interesting aspects is its ability, in a dilute solution, to provide a variety of colors if the silver is only briefly in contact with it and then rinsed well in plain water to stop the action. This color must be coated with a clear lacquer to prevent additional normal tarnishing from sulfur pollution in the air -- auto exhaust, mostly.

lost wax casting, The technique of casting metal in which a wax object is modeled and carved to the desired form, then contained in a cylinder of stainless steel and the space filled, surrounding the model, with special heat resistant investment plaster that hardens into the mold. The mold is then placed in an oven that burns out the wax and raises the mold to incandescent temperature, 1200 degrees F., and held there until all traces of the wax are vaporized, Then the cavity is filled with molten metal that solidifies into the rough casting. The wax is "lost" in the process. Contrary to rumor, this technique hasn't been forgotten and rediscovered; nothing has been "lost" except the wax.

mallet, leather or wood, A soft hammer used to form metals without compressing them as a hard steel hammer will.

mandrel, A rod or bar used as an internal form upon which metal objects are formed; a ring mandrel is tapered and may have the size lines engraved for reference while stretching a ring's circumference with a hammer; other mandrels are left plain and polished and, in cross section, can be square or triangular, etc.

marquise cut, A canoe shaped, double-pointed stone faceting shape.

mercury, The only metal that remains liquid at normal temperatures. It is used in positional switches such as older heat thermostats that use a bi-metal strip that bends with temperature change and cause a drop of mercury to move in a glass tube and make or break an electrical connection, in thermometers where it's property of expansion and contraction denote the changes of temperature; it was used in fine "mercury compensated" pendulum clocks to keep the center of mass of the pendulum unchanging; while the steel rod of the pendulum expands downward with heat, the mercury expands upward within tubes. Mercury and silver amalgam is used in dentistry for fillings and in jewelry making as an inlay material. Similarly, gold may be inlayed with a mercury amalgam. Mercury gilding was once the standard method of plating gold onto brass before the advent of electroplating (very dangerous, see "mercury gilding") and mercury was once used to extract gold from ore, then the mercury was burned away (again, very dangerous). The ultimate irony of the California gold rush is that more value in mercury was vaporized as the forty-niners poisoned themselves in their misguided efforts, than the value of the gold acquired by the process!

mica, or "isinglass," A mineral that occurs in flat layers and can be split into thin transparent sheets. It is resistant to heat and electricity and was once used for electrical insulators and window panes, and still used as windows into furnaces and wood stoves. It is used in enameling as a base upon which enamel and cloisonné wire may be arranged and fired without an underlying base of metal, for a stained glass-like effect called "pique a jour"; after firing, the mica is ground away and the enamel polished.

mine cut diamond, An older style of faceting, prior to the "European cut" but often considered synonymous, it is smaller in diameter and deeper above and below the girdle, and doesn't permit as much light to refract out of the stone as the more carefully done European cuts or the modern "brilliant" cut stones. However it does refract intense colors that are not often seen with a brilliant cut stone. An "old mine cut" is an indication of the work's antiquity, and may add value for this reason in spite of its lack of perfection in cut.

Moh's hardness scale, A comparative scale of mineral's hardnesses, from talc (one) to diamond (ten). It was devised by Friedrich Mohs, mineralogist (1773 -1839) It isn't an even progression though. A diamond is many times harder than a sapphire (nine) and parts (or rather, orientations) of a diamond's crystal are harder than other parts, otherwise diamonds couldn't be polished at all. the popular idea that a definitive test for a diamond, that it will scratch glass, is naive: most gemstones are harder than glass, which varies around six on the scale.

Mokumé Gane, Japanese metal working techniques in which layers of contrasting colored metals are bonded together in laminations, and then patterns may be forged into the combined sheet, making raised and lowered surfaces. then the high areas are filed away revealing the contrasting metals and patterns. Many creative possibilities for decorative uses include: filing through layers, braiding or weaving strips, mosaics, parquetry, etched layers (various metal rates of etching cause textures), etc.

mold rubber, cold-cast catalytic, Modern synthetic plastic-forming chemicals that are viscous liquids individually, but congeal into durable rubber when mixed together. In some circumstances they have an advantage over natural vulcanized rubber because they do not require external heat to cure, so wax models may be molded for duplication directly, before the risks of flaws happening while casting them into metal.

mold rubber, latex, Natural rubber, the sap of the rubber tree; it dries in air into reasonably durable elastic material, and may be painted onto a model in multiple layers to build up thickness. No heat is required, but it is very slow to build up a thick mold.

mold rubber, vulcanized, Natural rubber mixed with sulfur. Heat and pressure cause the mixture to acquire toughness and durability, making very long lasting molds. A metal casting is embedded in the un-vulcanized rubber within an aluminum or other heat conducting frame. Then the rubber is pressed tightly around the casting while being heated in a press or clamped between plates of metal and placed in an oven. The rubber and sulfur first melt and flow into all the nooks and crannies of the model, then solidify into durable rubber. After it's allowed to cool the mold is cut in parts with a very sharp scalpel, and the cast model removed. Additional work on the gates or pathways for the entering wax may be burned in last.

mordant, Any of the various acid and chemical mixtures that are used to etch metals.

niello, A heat-fused mixture of the sulfides of copper, silver and lead, used as a decorative dark gray or black colored part of a pattern or design, usually filled into etched recesses as a fused inlay within the silver. It should not be used inside hollow ware used for cooking because of the lead content.

ochre, A yellow pigment made from finely powdered iron ore (limonite) that is used as a barrier in soldering operations (antiflux) where one wants the solder to flow only just so far and no farther; for example, when making a hinge of small tubes it is critical to solder only every other part to each side of the moving joint, and not flow the solder between the joints at all. A small bit of ochre powder mixed into a paste or thick paint, with water and a little gum tragacanth or milk does this when carefully applied, and with minimal flux only where one wants the solder to flow.

oxidize, In jewelry making this term should rightfully be in quotes because it is technically incorrect as it is usually used -- to intentionally tarnish, "patinate," or "antique" silver or gold with a chemical mixture, usually containing sulfur or hydrochloric acid and some other dissolved metal. The darkening on silver is actually silver sulfide when the active chemical is sulfur, and when hydrochloric acid is involved, to obtain a darker tone, a thin layer of another impure metal is plated on top. Probably the misuse of "oxidize" began because of the similarity with iron rusting, which is an actual change from iron to iron oxide.

oxidizing flame, A gas torch flame with an excess of oxygen; it is the hottest mixture of fuel and oxygen resulting in a hissing sound and a small intense blue cone-shaped flame with little or no yellow color -- this last can be confusing when working with various borax based soldering fluxes that produce a very yellow color in the flame, and if the torch tip comes in contact with some molten borax it will stick to the tip like a drop of viscous honey and continue emitting a yellow tint, but the difference is that the yellow from borax occurs after the flame contacts the flux, while a yellow "reduction" flame -- an excess of fuel, not oxygen -- produces a softer, larger, quiet yellow flame, more like a candle flame.

paillon, A small snippet of solder, usually formed by cutting a short "fringe" of sheet solder, and then cutting across the tips of the fringe while holding a finger against the end to contain the tiny bits and prevent them from flying off into space to hide with the dust bunnies under the cabinets.

palladium, A white precious metal similar to platinum

patina, Coloring a metal's surface by various chemical means. See "antiqueing."

pavé stone setting, A technique in which gem stones are set side-by-side, "paving" the surface of the work with stones. This is done by drilling and countersinking holes as close to each other as possible, to fit the stone's diameters, and the remaining metal between the holes is carved up into small curled "stitches" with the judicious use of a slightly rounded engraving "scorper" tool. These stitches are then rounded down and pressed over against the girdles of the gem stones with a bead setting tool.

pickle, An acid chemical bath used to dissolve off flux and dirt from soldering operations. Sodium Bisulfate, a dry salt that is available as a swimming pool maintenance chemical, or as "Sparex"®, is commonly dissolved in warm water to produce a weak sulfuric acid solution. A stronger solution requires handling and mixing liquid acid, a riskier endeavor that inevitably leads to small holes in one's clothes that don't become apparent until the next load of laundry.

pickling, Soaking jewelry and other items in weak acid.

piercing, In metal work this refers to hollow ware or formed sheet metal items that have holes drilled through and then sawing and filing to form designs and patterns.

pin vise, A small hand tool used as a handle, to clamp fine wire objects: needles for enlarging small holes, drill bits or burs for hand drilling and carving plastic or wax, pieces of thin saw blades for tiny "keyhole" saws to get into places a saw frame won't allow, etc.

planishing, Careful light hammering with a polished planishing hammer; it is a finishing step and also it slightly case hardens and strengthens the work's surface

plastic media, See "tumbling media."

platinum, A white precious metal -- the most expensive of the normally available precious metals, It is totally resistant to tarnishing, easy to use for stone settings, yet surprisingly strong.

princess cut, A modern facet design name for a square form of cut diamond.

prong setting, Any of the common stone settings that raise the stone higher above the jewelry surface, held in elongated prongs to show the stone's sides and allow light to enter from below, which brightens its appearance.

punch, chasing, Special shaped, often polished, punches used to form three dimensional, usually low relief, patterns or designs in hollow ware or sheet metal items.

quench, Fast cooling with water; Many work hardened non-ferrous metals must be annealed by heating to incandescence, and then quickly quenched; The same process applied to carbon steel does the reverse. It hardens steel to a brittleness that must then be softened somewhat, tempered, with additional heat to acquire flexible strength. when the desired second temperature is reached (usually judged by the metal's color) it is again quenched.

raising, The ages-old process of hammer-forming hollow ware bowls, cups, goblets, etc. from flat sheet metal; specially shaped hammers, and formed anvils called stakes, are used to gradually move the metal into the desired forms.

reduction flame, A torch flame adjustment that has an excess of fuel or a dearth of oxygen; it burns with a large softer quiet yellow flame, and isn't as hot as an "oxidation flame."

refining, Purifying metal from either raw ore, or reclaimed metal from sweeps and scrap. Chemical properties and reactions are used to isolate the various metals. Silver, for example, dissolves in nitric acid along with many other metals, but when sodium chloride (ordinary salt) is added to the solution, silver chloride precipitates, leaving behind all the other dissolved metals. The silver can then be recovered by heat (and a LOT of toxic smoke) or by another chemical step: Relatively weak household ammonia dissolves silver chloride, and then nearly pure silver may be electroplated out. None of this is child's play, although it is fairly easy, it is also potentially toxic and, at the very least, unpleasant to be around or to have operational in the home. Gold refining was once accomplished with mercury (poisonous, see "mercury") but now it nearly always involves extremely toxic compounds of cyanide -- a poison that doesn't give you a second chance to correct your mistake, or even much time to reflect on it. Anyone seriously interested in refining should study it well, and know exactly what they are doing.

refraction, The property of light to be bent by a transparent material, and to divide into it's component colors. It varies with the particular transparent material through which it is passing: In gem stones light passes in through the various polished facets, sometimes separating into the rainbow colors when the particular facet angles act as prisms. This is why a colorless white diamond sparkles blue, red, green, yellow, etc. this differs from transparent stones that have a distinct constant color; that is an indication that the light has had some of it's color filtered out. Some colored stones have both properties of transmitted color and refracted color. Opaque colored stones absorb the colors you don't see and reflect that which you do see.

refraction, double, Some crystals are formed in molecular lattices that have the particular property of dividing light into two distinct pathways. Zircon, for example, is strongly doubly refractive and with careful observation through the gem, one can easily see two distinct images of the edges of the cut stone's facets; this property helps in identifying some gems, as it occurs to a lesser degree in other stones too.

refraction, index of, This is a numeric measure of the amount of light-bending ability a transparent material has. It is useful in identifying gems by comparison with liquids that have known indices of refraction; a stone in question is immersed in the various liquids and the one liquid in which the stone nearly disappears has the closest index of refraction as the stone.

resistance soldering, A process of soldering that makes use of electrical resistance to heat the metal. It is useful when the object must be heated quickly in one location to avoid damaging another part that may contain heat sensitive materials.

reticulate, A texture producing technique, of partially melting metal until its surface wrinkles, or reticulates.

rhodium, A white metal, similar to platinum, used to electroplate beneath and around diamonds.

riveting, A technique of attaching parts by use of a connector pin that has its ends upset or mushroomed in place. this is useful when attaching parts that cannot be soldered, such as ebony, or it may be used as a purely decorative treatment.

rolling, Squeezing metal through various rollers in a rolling mill.

rolling mill, A machine with polished steel rollers for flattening sheet metal into thinner forms, to press designs into the sheet metal; or with special wire-forming rollers to change the dimensions or shapes of wire, or to press a pattern into the wire.

roman finish, An almost incidental method of acquiring a rich gold surface to a lower carat gold product; when a gold alloy such as 14k is heated for prolonged periods or soldered repeatedly, the surface of the alloy looses some of the copper and silver, or other metals, in the alloy. It results in a thin surface of nearly pure gold. Care must be exercised then to not polish through the thin layer. Burnishing with polished steel is one of the traditional ancient methods.

rose cut, A very early diamond faceting style that doesn't have a table facet on top; it doesn't refract light well compared to other cuts, but it indicates antiquity in jewelry and its age may afford the item more value than it would otherwise have, so it is not necessarily a good idea to re-cut into a modern form.

rouge, A very fine grained high polishing and buffing compound consisting of very finely ground iron oxide (rust) usually mixed with some waxy binder and formed into a bar or block. The powder alone may be used as an "antiflux," when mixed with water and a gum to form a pasty paint.

saw frame, Usually just called a saw; an adjustable frame with a handle that clamps any of a variety of thin saw blades. It is usually used with a bench pin, and the working operation of the saw is downward, with the blade's teeth pointing toward the handle at the bottom, so the bench pin helps hold the item while the saw cuts, providing more freedom for the hands. Another very good incidental reason for sawing with the blade cutting on the down stroke becomes evident when, inevitably in every jeweler's life, a blade breaks and punctures a finger (!) If the blade was inserted in the wrong direction, teeth facing upward, the blade will be much more difficult to remove, like a fish hook with many barbs. I once saw a tearfully brave young girl realize her predicament and force the broken blade inward through the rest of her finger to remove it from the other side.

scorper, A pointed engraver used, among other things, for cutting prongs for bead setting and raising "stitches."

shellac, (sticky stuff made from bugs, honest) In jewelry making and metal smithing, as a solid form rather than the liquid used to finish wood; it has many purposes: as an ingredient in chasing pitch to add stiffness to the pitch, as a temporary (dissolvable) dopping glue to hold stones onto dop sticks, as a temporary glue to hold small objects in position on a lathe, as a solid filler to add weight to hollow ware bases such as candle sticks, in watchmaking to hold pallet stones on escapement levers, etc.

silver chloride, The stable chemical precipitate that forms from the combination of dissolved silver and chlorine. As a purifying refining step, table salt (silver chloride) is combined with a dilute nitric acid solution of dissolved metals including silver. As the salt dissolves in the solution silver chloride instantly curdles and settles out where it can then be filtered from the acid and rinsed.

silver nitrate, The poisonous chemical that forms when silver is dissolved by nitric acid - a step in recovering and refining silver from the abrasives and dirt in the sweeps and buffing waste is to dissolve the silver in nitric acid, then filter out the dirt residue. Other metals dissolve with the acid too, so purifying chemical steps are used to further isolate the silver.

silver solder, An alloy in its varied forms and qualities of silver, copper, cadmium, and/or other metals mixed for the specific purpose of lowering it's melting point below that of sterling silver (or the previously used alloys of solder) so the silver may be joined by melting and flowing the solder into the join, as nearly invisibly as possible.

snarling iron, A very special "stake" used to shape metal outward from within raised hollow ware; a solid forged hunk of iron -- it is essentially a hammer on a strong spring that is clamped in a vise at one end while the working end is located inside a vase or similar object and a hammer is brought to bear on some other part of the iron to force it downward a little. It bounces back and hammers the inside of the vase outward. this is especially useful to repair dents, although in the hands of an expert it becomes a creative tool as well.

sodium bisulfate, a dry granular chemical dissolved with water to form a mild sulfuric acid solution, see "pickle."

solder, hard, medium, easy, soft, The various grades of silver or carat gold solder are alloys that melt at different temperatures below the melting point of the work object, the normal highest being "hard" and the lowest, "easy." General practice is to accomplish the first soldering operations with the highest melting solder, then the next lower one for the next step, etc. Additionally, solder alloys are changed with melting, and will melt at a slightly higher temperature after each melting, so it is common to cut a bit and melt it first, than let it cool -- to raise it's melting point and use it first, so that in this way many more steps of soldering can be done without affecting previous work. For special conditions such as enameling where a silver alloy contacts a colored glass that may be affected by, say, cadmium or copper in the alloy, it sometimes requires an even higher melting point than "hard"; this is a special case alloy that is only slightly lower than the metal being soldered and requires extreme care to avoid melting the wrong thing! When working with gold, generally, 14k may be used to solder 18k, 12k may be used to solder 14k, etc. but there are special solder alloys that maintain the same gold content as the object being soldered, and should be used for that reason.

soldering block, A heat resistant surface upon which the various parts to be soldered and the various jigs, clips, pegs, etc. may be arranged; often it is made of a soft fire-brick material that allows for easy pinning with bits of iron binding wire. A charcoal block has the added utility of burning slowly under a torch flame, adding heat to the object from below, and using up oxygen in the air around it which otherwise might add to the metal's surface "fire scale."

soldering mop, also called a "nest" or "wig," A flattened tangle of iron wire held together with a frame or wrapping of thicker wire, used as a surface for soldering. It is easily bent to fit special needs and, with a raised clamp or held aloft, allows the application of heat through itself and beneath the work.

soldering pick, A simple pointed wire tool used to manipulate solder "paillons," and parts of objects while being soldered. See "tungsten pick."

Sparex®, A trade name for sodium bisulfate, a dry granular chemical dissolved with water to form a mild acid solution, see "pickle."

specific gravity, A scale of numbers that describe the comparative massiveness of substances. This is easily confused with weight -- and it is similar here on the planet -- but objects weigh differing amounts according to the effects of gravity, while their mass, or specific gravity, remains constant anywhere, and regardless of the amount of it you are measuring. This constant is useful in identifying gemstones: certain chemical liquids have their known specific gravitys, and minerals or gems may be either "heavier" or "lighter," so they either sink or float, or sometimes hover part way down, in each of the known test liquids. It is a simple process, then, to determine the specific gravity of an unknown gem stone.

stake, raising, Specialized anvils used in shaping metal hollow ware. they may be steel or, occasionally, wood shaped to fit a specific project.

stamping, This is one of those words that sounds so simple it shouldn't need to be explained. But as I think about it, it's used to describe so many things that I'm frankly confused about a definition, so I decided to explain my confusion and let it go at that. First there are identifying stamps like the maker's mark and "sterling" or "14k," and then there are designed stamps, like leather stamps except they should be better steel to last longer. But should they ever be called punches? I think they qualify as stamps if they leave a design with each impact, while a chasing punch just punches a small area... except for those textured chasing punches. And then there's the whole realm of machine die stamping and punching, where the punches cut something out while the stamp adds design and texture. But sometimes the design is applied with the same tool as that which cuts it out. In any case a "die stamping" is usually the pejorative term for mass produced items that have been punched and stamped by the thousands, with thousands of pounds of force by massive flywheel machines -- and if you ever forget to remove your hand from the business end of one of those it will look like a red jelly and you won't care a whit whether it was punched or stamped. (stamping my foot in frustration -- without leaving a design, I give up.

steam casting, This is a rather primitive method of forcing molten metal into the narrow channels of a mold. Truthfully, I've never resorted to it, but rumors are that it works reasonably well: A tin can is attached to a dowel handle and stuffed with wet rags, in preparation. An investment mold is made with smaller sprues than usual and with a generous depression or reservoir for a button of extra metal, but otherwise in the normal way, in a steel cylinder -- it could be another tin can. It is burned out in a kiln (something as simple as an old hot plate and an inverted ceramic flower pot can work) and then, while still hot -- probably at least 1000 degrees F. -- it is set on a firm surface and, with a torch, the metal is melted directly in the reservoir above the mold. Then (quickly) when the metal is molten (feel it with a graphite rod) the tin can with the wet rags is jammed down hard on top of it and held there -- steam pressure forces the molten metal in. The reason for the smaller sprues, that would seem counter-intuitive, is so the metal doesn't begin to enter the mold until the steam forces all of it in, so it's a smooth fast casting... as I said, in theory. You won't find me attempting this on a wax model that I've spent all day carving, but other people claim it's reliable, within limits, after a little practice.

sterling silver, Silver alloyed with 7.5% copper to strengthen and harden it. Another term for sterling is "925" meaning 925 parts silver in a total of 1000 parts. The name most likely comes from the Easterling family, who standardized the quality of silver in Europe during the 1300's. Pure silver is extremely soft and not very durable. Britannia silver has a slightly higher silver content than sterling - 958 parts per 1000. Coin silver is lower - 20% copper, or "800" silver per 1000 parts. "Nickel silver" may not contain any silver.

stitch, As in "raising a stitch" - a small prong of metal carved up out of the surface with a graver, used as tiny locating and holding structures in some soldering techniques, and in some stone setting techniques.

stone setting, (verb) Any of the many methods for attaching gems to jewelry that involve bending and forming metal over the edge of a stone. Variations include: bezel set, bead set, prong set, pave', channel set, electroformed in place, cast in place, wedged post (pearl)

stone setting, (noun) An item of jewelry, usually referring to a ring that is designed to hold a gemstone.

stretching, The process of controlled hammering or rolling a section of metal thinner to make it longer; this can be enlarging a finger ring on a steel mandrel or in the processes of forging hollow ware, or even, in watch making, lengthening the lever of the escapement pallet arm.

sulfurated potash, See "liver of sulfur."

swage block, A specially shaped bench block anvil, a kind of die, used with shaping hammers to form sheet silver or other metal into channel shapes,

sweat soldering, soldering flat sections of sheet-formed metal to other flat surfaces.

temper, Generally this refers to carbon steel: A reduction, or softening of metal hardness from full brittle, or "rock hard" to a much tougher semi-hard condition for tools, clock and watch parts, or springs.

third hand, a locking tweezers attached to a stand

tool making, This usually refers to shaping, hardening, and tempering steel dies, punches, gravers, circular cutters, drills and the like.

trillium cut, A triangular cut diamond.

tumble burnishing, This is an effective production technique of sliding steel "burnishing shot" (variously shaped small fat rounded pins, or American style footballs, or fat flying saucers) in a rolling barrel or vibrating tumbler with softer metal items. It is especially useful for polishing small wire items, and not capable, at least in my experience, of producing a top quality polish on large items, but if it's done well, it is very helpful in gently cleaning and polishing interior areas of jewelry that are difficult to reach with a buffing wheel, and it is additionally useful as a work hardening method: "case hardening" for silver.

tumble grinding, A mass production technique that involves a rotating or vibrating barrel of wet "grinding media," small abrasive bits of ceramic material, or cast polyester plastic mixed with abrasive powder. I sincerely advise the reader not to attempt to save finishing time by doing this; the grinding medium rubs not only against the metal being ground, but mostly against itself -- causing a slurry of suspended microscopic grit that quickly becomes imbedded in the softer metal objects, forming a thin layer that is very resistant to subsequent polishing. Too often the sad result of tumble grinding is indiscriminate rounding of the forms (leaving most of the imperfections) with a dull grayish sheen caused by the imbedded abrasive, and, if you're a naive young metalsmith like I once was (having accepted the terrible advice of a salesman) you may spend several miserable days of difficult buffing to remove the damage; this is a process more appropriate for a "satin finish" for brass hardware and the like.

tumbling, (caution!-- please read my diatribe about tumble grinding above) Any of the various grinding "polishing" (similar caution, although not as dangerous, or burnishing techniques using a rotating or vibrating barrel filled with "media," a solution of water and some form of foaming detergent and anti-tarnishing chemicals.

tumbling media, Any of the various materials used in a tumbler barrel to affect surface finishes.

tumbling shot, Same as "burnishing shot"

tumble polishing, metal, (My personal definition here may differ from others' because I'm differentiating this from rock and gem tumbling): I'm referring here to tumbling metal jewelry items in a "soft" media such as plastic or walnut shell particles, and a fine abrasive polishing powder, sometimes mixed with water and possibly detergent, or dry in a vibrator. It's critical to understand the difference because a "hard" media -- harder than the material being polished -- will drive the polishing abrasive into the metal's surface, while a "soft" media will tend more to have the abrasive imbedded in itself, thus becoming little polishing pads, microscopically rubbing the metal's surface clean. This is a technique that, in my experience, should be experimented with before being relied on.

tungsten pick, A soldering pick made of tungsten wire, that will resist intense heat within a torch flame without melting, useful for prolonged or repetitive soldering operations that would otherwise cause a steel pick to burn.

ultrasonic cleaning, the modern use of electronically produced high frequency sound vibrations within a bath of liquid, usually detergent, ammonia, and water, to jar loose grease, oil, and dirt particles from within areas that would otherwise be extremely difficult or impossible to reach with an ordinary brush. The cleaning action is described as "cavitation": Microscopic bubbles form and immediately collapse, loosening dirt's grip with a gentle scrubbing action.

vacuum casting, A technique in which the molten metal is sucked into the mold by the application of a vacuum to the walls or bottom side of the mold; the mold material, investment, is porous and contained in a stainless steel cylinder. A hollowed area is formed on the back of the investment so the edge of the cylinder fits completely flat, and while still hot the mold is placed on a heat resistant silicone rubber pad which seals against the steel cylinder's bottom edge. A tube enters from beneath and through the rubber pad under the mold, and this is connected to a chamber, often a simple bell jar, that has been evacuated with a vacuum pump. When the mold is in place on the rubber pad a valve is opened to the chamber and air begins sucking through the mold's porosity; the molten metal is poured into the top of the mold and it is assisted by the vacuum so it more easily flows into all the thinner nooks and crannies.

vacuum investing, A technique in which still liquid investment molds are placed inside a bell jar and the air is pumped out quickly. Water boils at room temperature at very low air pressure and bubbles of air in the investment plaster enlarge and rise to the top quickly, before the investment sets, combining with other large bubbles of air caused by the boiling. After a short time normal air pressure is returned to the bell jar and any air bubbles left in the investment compress and reduce in size, or disappear. All this is necessary to prevent bubbles in the mold material from becoming voids around the wax model that would be filled with the cast metal and remain as lumps on the casting.

vacuum pump, A pump used to draw air from within a bell jar during vacuum investing or vacuum casting.

vice, A mechanical clamp attached to the workbench.

vulcanize, The process of mixing sulfur and natural latex rubber, and heating it to stabilize it into durable rubber.

wax model, The preliminary shape used to make a mold of investment for lost wax casting. It is burned away in the process, leaving a cavity.

wax pen, An electric tool that heats a wire element, used to form wax as a liquid and in it's plastic stages.

wax, injecting, The process of forcing liquid wax into rubber molds to make duplicate wax models for lost wax castings.

wax, carving or modeling, for lost wax casting, Hard-carving and softer modeling waxes that burn away entirely, without any residue (hence - "lost wax") leaving the cavity within the investment mold. Although wax may be used in intermediate molding steps, the mold that withstands the heat of molten metal is a refractory form of plaster, or clay. Wax forms are the models, not the molds -- a common misconception.

white diamond compound, A buffing compound made of tin oxide and a binding wax that polishes fast and provides a moderately high shine. It isn't made of real diamond dust.

Winox®, My favorite acid-based gold and silver "oxidizer," (technically it doesn't oxidize, it plates a dark chemical patina, possibly silenium) it's the product of a man named Winston who, last I heard, still lived in the San Francisco area and aggressively, but nicely, encouraged other jewelers to try it. It produces a darker gray on 14k gold than any other product I've found.

wire drawing, The process of pulling wire through successively smaller tapered polished holes in hard steel draw plates, to produce finer wire.

wire, gallery, Gallery wire is decorative machine-rolled stone setting material with repetitive patterns. Generally it is formed to the circumference of the desired stone, cut off, soldered together and in place on the jewelry object, and its upper portion is pressed over the edges of the stone.

work hardening, The natural hardening of metal by forging or bending. Periodic annealing is necessary to prevent fractures from this effect if the work is to continue. Skilled crafts people work harden their objects intentionally when the correct form is attained.

wrought, Hammered or forged into shape, as in wrought iron or wrought silver.